Defense Mechanisms

EXPLANATION

 

✔Correct answer:

Experiencing a moist mouth. A moist or wet mouth is not typically associated with anxiety. In fact, the opposite is often true. Anxiety and stress can activate the body's "fight or flight" response, which can lead to dry mouth, as the body diverts resources away from non-essential functions like saliva production to more immediate needs.

Imagine being in a desert, where water is scarce. In this situation, you would want to conserve water for the most essential functions, like maintaining your body temperature and vital organ function. Similarly, when you're anxious, your body conserves resources for dealing with the perceived threat, which can lead to a dry mouth.

 

✘Incorrect answer options:

Feeling dyspnea (shortness of breath). Shortness of breath or dyspnea is a common symptom of anxiety. When a person is anxious, their body's "fight or flight" response can cause them to breathe faster and shallower, which can make them feel like they're not getting enough air.

Exhibiting gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms. Gastrointestinal symptoms, such as stomachache, nausea, or diarrhea, are also common in people with anxiety. The "fight or flight" response can disrupt the normal functioning of the digestive system, leading to these symptoms.

Demonstrating hyperventilation (rapid breathing). Hyperventilation, or rapid breathing, is another common symptom of anxiety. This is part of the body's "fight or flight" response, which prepares the body to respond to a perceived threat. Hyperventilation can lead to feelings of breathlessness, light-headedness, and other symptoms.

 

References

• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author.
• Harvard Health Publishing. (2019). Understanding the stress response. Harvard Medical School.

EXPLANATION

 

✔Correct answer:

Displaying neologisms. Neologisms, in the context of psychiatry, refer to made-up words or phrases that only have meaning to the individual who uses them. This is often seen in conditions like schizophrenia or other types of psychotic disorders. It's like creating a new language that only the individual understands.

Think of it like inventing a new word in a game of Scrabble that only makes sense to you, but not to the other players. It's a word that fits your understanding of the game, but it doesn't fit within the established rules or language of the game.

 

✘Incorrect answer options:

Neolithic. The term "Neolithic" refers to the last stage of the Stone Age, a period of human prehistory. It has no relevance to psychiatric conditions or language patterns.

Demonstrating verbalism. Verbalism is not a recognized term in psychiatry.

Experiencing delusional blocking. Delusional blocking is not a recognized term in psychiatry. Blocking, or thought blocking, refers to a sudden interruption in thought or speech that can occur in certain psychiatric conditions, but it doesn't involve the creation of new, meaningless words.

 

References

• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author.
• Sadock, B. J., Sadock, V. A., & Ruiz, P. (2014). Kaplan & Sadock's synopsis of psychiatry: Behavioral sciences/clinical psychiatry (11th ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer.

EXPLANATION

 

✔Correct answer:

Rationalization. Rationalization is a defense mechanism in which controversial behaviors or feelings are justified and explained in a seemingly rational or logical manner to avoid the true explanation, and are made consciously tolerable—or even admirable and superior—by plausible means. It is a form of making excuses.

Imagine you're driving a car and you accidentally run a red light. Instead of acknowledging that you made a mistake, you might rationalize it by saying, "Well, there were no other cars around, so it was safe," or "I'm in a hurry, so it's okay this time." In reality, the subconscious motivation might be impatience or lack of attention, but rationalization allows you to avoid confronting these less favorable traits.

Rationalization not only prevents anxiety, it may also protect self-esteem and self-concept. When conducted in moderation, rationalization can be an effective defense mechanism. However, when done habitually, it can prevent growth and development, and can lead to harmful behaviors being overlooked.

 

✘Incorrect answer options:

Compensation. Compensation is a strategy whereby one covers up, consciously or unconsciously, weaknesses, frustrations, desires, or feelings of inadequacy or incompetence in one life area through the gratification or (drive towards) excellence in another area. Compensation can cover a wide range of areas from physical to intellectual to social. For instance, a person who is not good at sports may focus on excelling academically.

Projection. Projection is a psychological defense mechanism in which individuals attribute characteristics they find unacceptable in themselves to another person. For example, a person who is rude may constantly accuse other people of being rude.

Dysphoria. Dysphoria is a profound state of unease or dissatisfaction. In a psychiatric context, dysphoria may accompany depression, anxiety, or agitation. It is not a defense mechanism, but rather a state of emotional distress.

 

References

• McLeod, S. A. (2018). Defense Mechanisms. Simply Psychology.
• Videbeck, S. L. (2017). Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing. Wolters Kluwer Health.

EXPLANATION

 

✔Correct answer:

Having difficulties related to autotopagnosia. Autotopagnosia, also known as somatotopagnosia, is a condition where a person is unable to comprehend the orientation of different parts of their body. This means they struggle to identify or acknowledge their own body parts, such as their hand or foot, and their spatial relationships. This condition is usually due to damage to the parietal lobe of the brain, which is responsible for spatial sense and navigation.

Think of it like being lost in a city without a map or GPS. You know where you want to go, but you can't figure out which direction to take or how far you need to go. Similarly, a person with autotopagnosia knows they have a hand or foot, but they can't figure out where it is in relation to the rest of their body.

 

✘Incorrect answer options:

Experiencing symptoms of cataplexy. Cataplexy is a sudden and uncontrollable muscle weakness or paralysis that comes on during the day and is often triggered by a strong emotion such as laughter, surprise, or anger. It is commonly associated with narcolepsy, a long-term neurological disorder that involves a decreased ability to regulate sleep-wake cycles. While it can be a debilitating condition, it does not affect a person's ability to recognize or locate their body parts.

Dealing with feelings of ergophobia. Ergophobia is an abnormal and persistent fear of work or finding employment. It can be a debilitating condition for some people, but it is a psychological issue rather than a neurological one. It does not affect a person's ability to recognize or locate their body parts.

Showing signs of anosognosia. Anosognosia is a condition in which a person who suffers from a disability seems unaware of or denies the existence of their disability. This can happen in conditions like schizophrenia, stroke, or brain injury. While it can affect a person's perception of their own health, it does not specifically cause difficulty in identifying the location of body parts.

 

References

• Critchley, M. (1953). The Parietal Lobes. Hafner Press.
• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author.

EXPLANATION

 

✔Correct answer:

Pincer grasp reflex. The pincer grasp reflex, which involves the coordinated movement of the thumb and index finger to hold an object, is not present at birth. This is a more complex motor skill that typically develops around 9-10 months of age.

Imagine a baby's motor skills as a building under construction. At birth, the building's foundation and first few floors (representing basic reflexes and motor skills) are already built. However, the upper floors (representing more complex skills like the pincer grasp) are still under construction. As the baby grows and develops, construction progresses, and these upper floors are gradually completed.

The development of the pincer grasp is a significant milestone in a baby's life because it allows them to feed themselves and explore their environment in a more detailed way. It's like giving the baby a set of tools to interact more effectively with the world around them.

 

✘Incorrect answer options:

Moro reflex. The Moro reflex, also known as the startle reflex, is present at birth and typically disappears around 4-6 months of age. It's elicited when the baby is startled by a loud sound or movement, especially a falling movement. The baby reacts by throwing back their head, extending out their arms and legs, crying, then pulling the arms and legs back in.

Rooting reflex. The rooting reflex is present at birth and helps the baby find the mother's nipple or a bottle nipple for feeding. When the corner of the baby's mouth is touched or stroked, the baby will turn their head and open their mouth to follow and "root" in the direction of the stroking. This helps the baby find the breast or bottle to begin feeding.

Sucking reflex. The sucking reflex is also present at birth and is triggered when something touches the roof of the baby's mouth. The baby will instinctively begin to suck on it. This reflex, along with the rooting reflex, helps the baby feed.

 

References

• Pillitteri, A. (2017). Maternal and Child Health Nursing: Care of the Childbearing and Childrearing Family. Wolters Kluwer Health.
• Hockenberry, M. J., & Wilson, D. (2019). Wong's Essentials of Pediatric Nursing. Elsevier Health Sciences.

EXPLANATION

 

✔Correct answer:

Typically seen in toddlers aged 12 to 24 months. Parallel play is a form of play in which children play adjacent to each other, but do not try to influence one another's behavior. Children usually play alone during parallel play but are interested in what other children are doing. This is an important stage in a child's social development.

Imagine two toddlers as two ships sailing in the sea. During parallel play, the ships are sailing in the same direction and can see each other, but they are not interacting or influencing each other's course. They are aware of each other's presence, but they are doing their own thing.

Parallel play allows children to enjoy the company of their peers without the complexities of interaction. It's like a stepping stone towards more complex social interactions that come later in development, such as associative play and cooperative play.

 

✘Incorrect answer options:

Between the ages of 5 to 10 months. At this age, infants are still developing basic motor skills and are not yet ready for any form of social play. They may enjoy watching other children, but their play is not typically influenced by their peers.

Around 10 to 14 months of age. While some toddlers may start to show signs of parallel play at this age, it's not typically the predominant form of play until a bit later, around 12 to 24 months of age.

Emerging during the period of 24 to 48 months. By this age, children are typically engaging in more complex forms of social play. They are not only aware of their peers but also start to interact with them more directly, such as in associative play (where children play together but without a common goal) or cooperative play (where children play together with a common goal).

 

References

• McDevitt, T. M., & Ormrod, J. E. (2018). Child Development and Education. Pearson.
• Berk, L. E. (2013). Child Development. Pearson.

EXPLANATION

 

✔Correct answer:

Experiencing brainwave activity in the Theta frequency range. During light sleep, which includes the first two stages of the sleep cycle, the brain primarily exhibits Theta wave activity. Theta waves, which have a frequency range of about 4 to 7 Hz, are associated with reduced consciousness, relaxation, and light sleep. This is the stage where you can be awakened easily, and if you were to wake up, you might feel like you haven't really been sleeping.

Think of Theta waves as the background music in a movie scene where a character is just starting to drift off to sleep. It's not the deep, dream-filled sleep (which would be represented by different music), but the initial, lighter stages of sleep.

 

✘Incorrect answer options:

Having brainwave activity in the Beta frequency range. Beta waves, which range from 12 to 30 Hz, are typically associated with active, busy or anxious thinking and active concentration. This is more common in wakeful states.

Showing brainwave activity in the Alpha frequency range. Alpha waves, which range from 8 to 12 Hz, are typically associated with relaxed, calm wakefulness. They are present during things like meditation and quiet reflection.

Zeta that is commonly found in sleep patterns. Zeta is not a recognized category of brainwave activity in the context of sleep patterns.

 

References

• "Sleep macro- and microstructure in breast cancer survivors" - J. Perrier et al., Nature, 2022. [Link to the article](https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-06664-z)
• "Sleep-Wake Rhythm and Oscillatory Pattern Analysis in a Multiple Hit Schizophrenia Rat Model (Wisket)" - L. G. Adlan et al., Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 2022. [Link to the article](https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2021.799271)

EXPLANATION

 

✔Correct answer:

The process of Projection. Projection is a psychological defense mechanism where individuals attribute characteristics, feelings, or impulses which are perceived as undesirable or unacceptable to someone else. It's an unconscious process that helps the individual cope with difficult feelings or emotions.

Imagine you're watching a movie in a theater. The projector takes the images from the film and throws them onto the screen for everyone to see. Similarly, in the psychological process of projection, an individual "projects" their own undesirable characteristics or feelings onto someone else.

For example, a person who is being unfaithful in a relationship may accuse their partner of infidelity. In this case, the person is not consciously aware that the infidelity exists within themselves, so they project it onto their partner.

Projection serves as a defense mechanism because it allows individuals to avoid the discomfort or anxiety that can come from acknowledging these undesirable feelings or traits in themselves. It's like wearing a pair of sunglasses that change the color of everything you see; the world hasn't changed color, but your perception of it has.

 

✘Incorrect answer options:

The act of Compensation. Compensation is a different type of defense mechanism where an individual overachieves in one area to compensate for failures or inadequacies in another. For example, a person who struggles with social interactions might focus on excelling academically or professionally.

The mechanism of Rationalization. Rationalization involves explaining an unacceptable behavior or feeling in a rational or logical manner, avoiding the true reasons for the behavior. For instance, a person who is turned down for a promotion might rationalize it by saying they didn't want the additional responsibility.

The state of Dysphoria. Dysphoria is not a coping mechanism but a state of unease or dissatisfaction with life. It's often associated with mood disorders, such as depression or bipolar disorder.

 

References

• Townsend, M. C., & Morgan, K. I. (2018). Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing: Concepts of Care in Evidence-Based Practice. F.A. Davis Company.
• Videbeck, S. L. (2017). Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing. Wolters Kluwer Health.

EXPLANATION

 

✔Correct answer:

Rejection. The standard stages of the grieving process, as proposed by psychiatrist Elisabeth Kübler-Ross in her 1969 book "On Death and Dying," include five stages: Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, and Acceptance. These stages are often referred to by the acronym DABDA.

Rejection is not considered a standard stage of the grieving process according to Kübler-Ross's model. The term "rejection" in the context of grief is not typically used in professional literature and does not align with the established stages of grief.

Imagine you're on a journey through a difficult terrain, like a dense forest or a steep mountain. This journey represents the process of grieving. The stages (Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, and Acceptance) are like the different types of challenges or landscapes you encounter on your journey. For instance, denial could be compared to a thick fog that prevents you from seeing the path ahead. Anger might be a steep, rocky incline that's difficult to climb. Bargaining could be a confusing crossroads where you're not sure which way to go. Depression might be a dark, shadowy valley, and acceptance is the moment you see the light at the end of the tunnel.

Rejection, in this context, doesn't fit into the landscape of this journey. It's like a sudden cliff or a river that doesn't naturally occur on the path you're following. It might be part of someone's personal experience, but it's not a recognized stage in the established model of grief.

 

✘Incorrect answer options:

Anger. Anger is a recognized stage of the grieving process. It's a natural reaction to the loss and can be directed at oneself, others, or the situation.

Denial. Denial is the first stage of grief. It's a common defense mechanism that buffers the immediate shock of the loss, numbing us to our emotions.

Bargaining. Bargaining is a typical reaction to feelings of helplessness and vulnerability and is often a need to regain control.

 

References

• Kübler-Ross, E. (1969). On Death and Dying. Macmillan.
• Bowden, V. R., Smith Greenberg, C. (2020). Pediatric Nursing Procedures. Wolters Kluwer Health.

EXPLANATION

 

✔Correct answer:

Experiencing narcolepsy. Narcolepsy is a neurological disorder that affects the control of sleep and wakefulness. People with narcolepsy experience excessive daytime sleepiness and intermittent, uncontrollable episodes of falling asleep during the daytime. These sudden sleep attacks may occur during any type of activity at any time of the day.

In a typical sleep cycle, a person enters the early stages of sleep, followed by deeper sleep stages and ultimately (after about 90 minutes) REM sleep. For people suffering from narcolepsy, REM sleep occurs almost immediately in the sleep cycle, as well as periodically during the waking hours. It is in REM sleep that we can experience dreams and muscle paralysis — which explains some of the symptoms of narcolepsy.

 

✘Incorrect answer options:

Undergoing transitional sleep. Transitional sleep refers to the stages of sleep between wakefulness and deep sleep, not a condition where a person falls asleep suddenly and without warning.

Experiencing REM absence. REM absence, or a lack of REM sleep, would likely lead to symptoms of sleep deprivation, such as fatigue, difficulty concentrating, and mood changes, but it would not cause a person to fall asleep suddenly and without warning.

Experiencing cataplexy. Cataplexy is a symptom often seen in narcolepsy, characterized by sudden muscle weakness triggered by strong emotions such as laughter, anger, or surprise. While cataplexy can cause a person to collapse, it does not cause them to fall asleep.

 

References

• American Academy of Sleep Medicine. (2014). International Classification of Sleep Disorders – Third Edition (ICSD-3). Darien, IL.
• National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. (2019). Narcolepsy Fact Sheet.

EXPLANATION

 

✔Correct answer:

Utilizing compensation to address weaknesses. Compensation is a psychological defense mechanism where people overachieve in one area to compensate for failures or inadequacies in another. It's a way of covering up a perceived weakness by emphasizing a strength or a trait that one considers more desirable.

Imagine a soccer player who isn't very good at scoring goals. To compensate for this weakness, the player might focus on becoming excellent at passing the ball or defending, areas where they feel more competent or confident. This way, they can still contribute significantly to their team and feel valuable, despite their difficulty with scoring goals.

Compensation can be a healthy defense mechanism if it leads to development of skills and doesn't cause distress or harm. However, it can be unhealthy if it leads to an imbalance in the person's life or if it's used to cover up a problem that needs to be addressed directly.

 

✘Incorrect answer options:

Experiencing feelings of dysphoria. Dysphoria is a state of unease or dissatisfaction with life, not a defense mechanism. It's often associated with depression, anxiety, or other mental health disorders.

Engaging in rationalization as a coping mechanism. Rationalization is a defense mechanism where people create logical excuses for actions or feelings that are socially unacceptable or uncomfortable. It's a way of explaining away behaviors or thoughts that might otherwise cause guilt or embarrassment.

Projecting emotions onto others. Projection is a defense mechanism where people attribute their own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or motives to another person. It's a way of denying or externalizing uncomfortable internal experiences.

 

References

• McLeod, S. A. (2020). Defense Mechanisms. Simply Psychology.
• Cherry, K. (2020). How People Use Defense Mechanisms to Cope. Verywell Mind.

EXPLANATION

 

✔Correct answer:

Engaging in the stage of generativity vs. stagnation. According to Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, a 60-year-old adult would typically be in the stage of generativity vs. stagnation. This stage generally occurs between the ages of 40 and 65. During this period, adults strive to create or nurture things that will outlast them; often this takes the form of parenting or mentoring, but it can also involve other forms of creative output and productivity. Generativity is the sense of contribution to future generations, while stagnation is the feeling of being unproductive or uninvolved in the world.

Think of it like gardening. A person in the generativity stage is like a gardener who plants seeds and nurtures them to grow, taking satisfaction in knowing that these plants will continue to live and bloom even after they're gone. On the other hand, someone experiencing stagnation might feel like a gardener who's stopped tending to their garden, leading to a sense of dissatisfaction as they see the garden wither and fail to thrive.

 

✘Incorrect answer options:

Experiencing the stage of longevity vs. guilt. This is not a recognized stage in Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.

Going through the stage of intimacy vs. isolation. This stage typically occurs during early adulthood (20s to early 40s). It's a time when people explore personal relationships and either form lasting intimate bonds or become isolated from others.

Encountering the stage of integrity vs. despair. This stage is typically experienced in late adulthood (65 years and older). It's a time when people reflect on their lives and either feel a sense of satisfaction (integrity) or regret (despair).

 

References

• Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton. This book introduces Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.
  
• McLeod, S. A. (2018, May 03). Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. Simply Psychology. This article provides a comprehensive overview of Erikson's stages of psychosocial development.

EXPLANATION

 

✔Correct answer:

Experiencing the stage of integrity vs. despair. According to Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, a 70-year-old adult would be in the stage of integrity vs. despair. This is the final stage of life, typically beginning at retirement and continuing until death. During this stage, individuals reflect on the life they have lived and come to terms with it.

If they look back on a life well-lived, they feel a sense of integrity and satisfaction. It's like reading a good book and feeling content when you reach the end, even if there were some difficult chapters.

However, if they look back with regret and a sense of missed opportunities, they may feel despair. This is akin to looking back on a journey and regretting the paths not taken or the sights not seen.

 

✘Incorrect answer options:

Going through the stage of generativity vs. stagnation. The stage of generativity vs. stagnation typically occurs during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65). During this stage, individuals strive to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or contributing to positive changes that benefit other people. If they fail to achieve this sense of generativity, they may feel stagnant and unproductive.

Engaging in the stage of longevity vs. guilt. There is no stage of longevity vs. guilt in Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This may be a misunderstanding or misinterpretation of the stages.

Encountering the stage of intimacy vs. isolation. The stage of intimacy vs. isolation typically occurs during early adulthood (ages 20 to 40). During this stage, individuals explore relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with others. Success in this stage leads to the virtue of love. Failure results in feelings of isolation and loneliness.

 

References

• Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
• McLeod, S. (2018). Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development. Simply Psychology.

EXPLANATION

 

✔Correct answer:

It could be a case of Projection. Projection is a psychological defense mechanism where individuals attribute their own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or motives to another person. In the case of paranoid delusions, the individual often projects their own feelings of hostility, aggression, or other negative sentiments onto others, believing that these others are out to harm them.

For example, a person who is harboring dishonest thoughts might accuse others of being deceitful without any evidence. They are "projecting" their own dishonesty onto others.

 

✘Incorrect answer options:

The possibility is Regression. Regression is a defense mechanism where an individual reverts to an earlier stage of development in response to stressful situations. While it can manifest in various ways, it's not typically associated with paranoid delusions.

For instance, an adult who is under a lot of stress might start exhibiting behaviors from their childhood, like throwing tantrums or sucking their thumb. This is regression, as they are reverting to behaviors from a time when they felt safer.

Another potential mechanism could be Repression. Repression is a defense mechanism where an individual unconsciously blocks out distressing thoughts or feelings. While repression can contribute to a range of psychological issues, it's not directly linked to the development of paranoid delusions.

For example, a person who had a traumatic experience might not remember the event at all. Their mind "represses" the memory to protect them from the distress it causes.

Identification might also be the defense mechanism at play. Identification is a defense mechanism where an individual emulates the behavior, traits, or attitudes of someone else, particularly someone more powerful or superior. It's not typically associated with paranoid delusions.

For instance, a young employee might start dressing like their boss and adopting their mannerisms. This is identification, as they are trying to deal with feelings of insecurity or inferiority by emulating someone they perceive as successful or powerful.

 

References

• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author.
• Freud, S. (1961). The ego and the id. In J. Strachey (Ed. and Trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 19, pp. 3-66). London, England: Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1923)

EXPLANATION

 

✔Correct answer:

90 minutes. During a typical night's sleep, a person goes through several sleep cycles, each lasting approximately 90 to 110 minutes. Each cycle includes stages of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep and a period of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep.

Imagine sleep as a journey on a circular train track. Each complete loop around the track represents a sleep cycle. The train makes several stops along the way, which represent the different stages of sleep. The REM sleep stage is like a special stop where the train stays a bit longer and where dreams occur. The train reaches this stop approximately every 90 minutes.

During the first sleep cycle, the REM sleep period is relatively short, around 10 minutes. As the night progresses, REM sleep periods get longer, with the final one lasting up to an hour.

 

✘Incorrect answer options:

• 75 minutes.
• 60 minutes.
• 45 minutes.

While these time frames are close to the correct answer, they are not accurate. The REM sleep cycle typically occurs approximately every 90 minutes, not every 75, 60, or 45 minutes. It's like saying the train arrives every hour when it actually arrives every 90 minutes. The difference might seem small, but it's important for understanding the structure of sleep.

 

References

• Carskadon, M. A., & Dement, W. C. (2017). Normal Human Sleep: An Overview. In M. H. Kryger, T. Roth, & W. C. Dement (Eds.), Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine (6th ed.). Elsevier.
• Purves D., Augustine G.J., Fitzpatrick D., et al., editors. (2001). Neuroscience. 2nd edition. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates. "Box D: Sleep and Wakefulness."

EXPLANATION

 

✔Correct answer:

Going through the stage of intimacy vs. isolation. According to Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, a 20-year-old adult would typically be in the stage of intimacy vs. isolation. This stage generally occurs during early adulthood, from around 20 to 40 years of age. During this period, the main focus is on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love. If young adults can form intimate relationships and get through this stage, they can avoid feeling isolated and lonely.

Imagine this stage as a team-building exercise. The individual is like a team member trying to form strong, supportive relationships with their peers. If they succeed, they feel a sense of camaraderie and belonging (intimacy). If they fail, they may feel like an outsider, disconnected and alone (isolation).

 

✘Incorrect answer options:

Experiencing the stage of generativity vs. stagnation. This stage typically occurs during middle adulthood, from around 40 to 65 years of age. It's a time when people strive to create or nurture things that will outlast them, such as through parenting or mentoring.

Engaging in the stage of integrity vs. despair. This stage is typically experienced in late adulthood (65 years and older). It's a time when people reflect on their lives and either feel a sense of satisfaction (integrity) or regret (despair).

Encountering the stage of longevity vs. guilt. This is not a recognized stage in Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.

 

References

• Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton. This book introduces Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.
• McLeod, S. A. (2018, May 03). Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. Simply Psychology. This article provides a comprehensive overview of Erikson's stages of psychosocial development.

EXPLANATION

 

✔Correct answer:

Feeling the urge to urinate. Panic disorder is characterized by recurrent, unexpected panic attacks. Panic attacks are sudden periods of intense fear that may include palpitations, sweating, shaking, shortness of breath, numbness, or a feeling that something terrible is going to happen. The maximum degree of symptoms occurs within minutes and typically lasts for about 20 to 30 minutes.

While the urge to urinate can be a symptom of anxiety, it is not typically associated with panic disorder. This symptom is more commonly associated with conditions affecting the urinary system, such as urinary tract infections or overactive bladder syndrome.

It's like having a faulty alarm system in a building that goes off at the slightest hint of trouble, even when there's no real danger.

 

✘Incorrect answer options:

Experiencing chest pain. Chest pain is a common symptom of panic disorder. During a panic attack, the body's fight-or-flight response is activated. This can cause the heart to beat faster and stronger, which can lead to feelings of chest pain or discomfort. It's like a car engine revving up in response to a perceived threat, even if there's no actual need for it.

Dealing with excessive perspiration. Excessive perspiration is another common symptom of panic disorder. The body sweats as part of the fight-or-flight response, which is activated during a panic attack. This is the body's way of trying to cool down as it prepares to respond to a perceived threat. It's like turning on the air conditioning in a car when the engine starts to overheat.

Experiencing nausea. Nausea is also a common symptom of panic disorder. Anxiety and fear can disrupt the normal functioning of the digestive system, leading to feelings of nausea or upset stomach. It's like a roller coaster ride - the intense fear and anxiety can make your stomach churn.

 

References

• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author.
• Varcarolis, E. (2016). Essentials of Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing: A Communication Approach to Evidence-Based Care. Elsevier Health Sciences.

EXPLANATION

 

✔Correct answer:

Conversion disorder. Conversion disorder, also known as functional neurological symptom disorder, is a condition where patients present with physical neurological symptoms, such as weakness, numbness, or seizures, but no neurological explanation can be found. It's believed that these symptoms arise in response to stressful or traumatic situations, representing an attempt to resolve the conflict psychologically.

Imagine your brain as a computer that's been working hard, processing a lot of data. Suddenly, a particularly complex piece of data (representing a stressful or traumatic event) comes in, and the computer can't process it. Instead of simply shutting down, the computer redirects the processing power into another task, like running a screensaver. In the case of conversion disorder, the brain "redirects" the stress into physical symptoms.

Conversion disorder is a complex and poorly understood condition. It's important to note that the symptoms are not under the patient's conscious control and are not considered to be feigned or intentionally produced.

 

✘Incorrect answer options:

Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects memory, thinking, and behavior. It's primarily associated with the accumulation of beta-amyloid plaques and tau tangles in the brain, leading to neuronal death. It's not typically associated with stress or trauma, and it doesn't involve the sudden onset of neurological symptoms in response to stress.

Depressive reaction. Depressive reaction, also known as major depressive disorder, is a mental health disorder characterized by persistently depressed mood or loss of interest in activities, causing significant impairment in daily life. It's associated with a variety of symptoms, including sleep disturbances, changes in appetite or weight, and feelings of worthlessness or guilt. While stress can be a trigger for depressive episodes, the primary symptoms are emotional rather than physical.

Bipolar disorder. Bipolar disorder is a psychiatric condition characterized by extreme mood swings that include episodes of mania (elevated mood, high energy, reduced need for sleep) and depression (low mood, low energy, loss of interest in activities). While stress can trigger episodes, the primary symptoms are mood disturbances, not physical symptoms in response to stress.

 

References

• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author.
• Videbeck, S. L. (2017). Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing. Wolters Kluwer Health.

EXPLANATION

 

✔Correct answer:

At the age of 6 months. Most babies start sitting up on their own around the age of 6 months. This is a significant developmental milestone as it indicates that the baby's muscles in the neck, back, and abdomen have developed enough strength to keep them upright. This also coincides with the development of their balance and coordination skills.

Imagine learning to ride a bicycle. Initially, you need training wheels (like the support of a caregiver or a baby seat for the baby) to stay upright. But as you practice and your muscles get stronger, you can balance and ride the bike without any assistance. Similarly, as babies grow and their muscles strengthen, they learn to sit up independently.

 

✘Incorrect answer options:

When she's 4 months old. While some babies might start showing signs of sitting up at this age, they usually need assistance to stay upright. Their muscles and coordination skills are still developing, much like a young sapling that needs a stake for support until it grows stronger.

Once she turned 8 months old. & By the time she's 10 months old. While every child develops at their own pace, most babies can sit up without assistance by the age of 6 months. If a baby is not sitting up by 8 or 10 months, it may be a sign of a developmental delay, and it would be advisable to consult a pediatrician. This is akin to a student who is falling behind in class; it doesn't necessarily mean there's a problem, but it's worth checking to make sure everything is on track.

 

References

• Hockenberry, M. J., & Wilson, D. (2019). Wong's Essentials of Pediatric Nursing. Elsevier Health Sciences.
• Pillitteri, A. (2017). Maternal and Child Health Nursing: Care of the Childbearing and Childrearing Family. Wolters Kluwer Health.

EXPLANATION

 

✔Correct answer:

Beta. Beta waves are the most commonly observed waveform in an awake, alert individual who is actively thinking or concentrating. They are high frequency (13-30 Hz), low amplitude brain waves that are typically associated with active, busy or anxious thinking and active concentration.

To visualize this, imagine a calm sea with small, frequent waves. These waves represent the beta waves in our brain when we are awake and actively engaged in mental activities. Just as the frequent waves on the sea surface indicate a lot of activity, beta waves indicate a lot of mental activity.

 

✘Incorrect answer options:

Theta. Theta waves are typically observed during light sleep or deep relaxation, such as during meditation. They are low frequency (4-7 Hz), high amplitude waves. Theta waves are like the larger, slower waves you might see on the sea during a calm day, representing a state of relaxation or light sleep.

Zeta. Zeta waves do not exist in the context of EEG waveforms.

Alpha. Alpha waves are typically observed when a person is awake but in a relaxed state, often with eyes closed. They are moderate frequency (8-13 Hz), moderate amplitude waves. Alpha waves can be thought of as the waves you see on a calm sea when there's a gentle breeze, representing a state of calm wakefulness.

 

References

• Niedermeyer E. and da Silva F.L. (2005). Electroencephalography: Basic Principles, Clinical Applications, and Related Fields. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
• Purves D., Augustine G.J., Fitzpatrick D., et al., editors. (2001). Neuroscience. 2nd edition. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates. "Box A: Brain Waves."